Towards a History of Consciousness:
Space, Time, and Death

By Vwadek P. Marciniak

Introduction

A single author cannot speak with the high authority of a panel of experts, but he may succeed in giving to his work an integrated and even an epical quality that no composite volume can achieve. . . . [The specialized historian's] work can be of the highest value; but it is not an end in itself. I believe that the supreme duty of the historian is to write history, that is to say, to attempt to record in one sweeping sequence the greater events and movements that have swayed the destinies of men. The writer rash enough to make the attempt should not be criticized for his ambitions, however much he may deserve censure for the inadequacy for his equipment or the inanity of his results.

This historical survey of our Western history has a very unique theme driving the narrative and analysis. While it does not, "¼attempt to record in one sweeping sequence the greater events and movements that have swayed the destinies of men," it does attempt to offer a small clarification of a neglected topic that could enlighten us on the historic background and context for both the introduction and the growth of our capacity for creating a conscious self. The metaphor offered to dramatize the assumptions inherent in this endeavor, one that has grown out of more than sixteen years research and twenty-five years teaching an integrated Humanities program, will be organic. Any study of where we come from is a necessary prerequisite in explaining where and who we are.

In the history of ideas, no aspect has been more neglected than that of consciousness. Historians discuss in depth the great thinkers, their contributions to the world of ideas, but rarely, and only as an aside, our consciousness. They discuss and dissect postmodernism, fascism, humanism and even multi-culturalism, but on the whole they remain indifferent to what has become one of the most significant topics for neuroscientists, psychologists, philosophers and cognitive researchers. Part of the problem is that this is the most ambiguous of terms, playing a plethora of roles as a qualifier: "Black Consciousness," "Bourgeois Consciousness," "Feminine Consciousness," "Gay Consciousness," "Double Consciousness," ad nauseam. Many writers perceive consciousness as simply too obvious in meaning and application for a definition to be of any particular concern. For many it has become little more than part of a useful social science jargon while at the same time too subjective to admit existence except as a literary convenience. Others would even go so far as to deny that the mind itself exists. It is little wonder that a discussion of the historic development and evolution of the various degrees of modern consciousness would prove for many a conspicuous waste of time.

Compounding this difficulty, there is the historic question of the development of an inner self, one's own distinct individuality, as both part of a personal identity and the development of thoughtful choices. In an expanding world of existential attitudes, the implication of a self and individuality for consciousness is too ambiguous without considering the full breadth of its historical background. This simply exacerbates the complex problem of defining consciousness, especially for the historian seeking causation, relationships and development. Since consciousness is perceived an inclusionary term containing many aspects and components, this survey will use sources from a variety of disciplines. How and where did consciousness come from is an extremely complex issue begging for detailed examination.

From its beginning, consciousness is seen as a biological and organic phenomena growing out of opportune soil; from the earliest where we find nothing that could be considered modern consciousness, then growing slowly through centuries into maturation. Questions arising from this analysis have proven revealing, instructive and often problematic-some suggested here: What should be considered as the most fundamental root that made possible the creation of our transformation into self-conscious beings with a private reality? What are some of the fundamental characteristics of the soil conducive for the growth of evolving consciousness that can be identified and examined? And what has proven to be a necessary fertilizer in our common historic past among thinkers and cultures that make for enhancement and expansion of what we refer to as a modern self?

Could it also be that there are associations between our development into modern consciousness and the appearance of the contemporary existential attitudes now increasingly appearing among certain thinkers and artists? Finally, is it possible that we are organically structured to evolve into even higher and more complex states of consciousness than already realized?

There have been a number of themes that have also grown within this work, some of which may be problematic for students of the subject. I have already implied that we have not always been conscious, that when consciousness appears it is in degrees and it only appears as we approach our own era. There may be exceptions to these patterns, some noted in the last chapters, but they too will only be suggestive. The themes themselves will be discussed briefly regarding the orientation of the chronological and scholarly materials.

When this work began it was assumed that consciousness was a singular issue. The companion ideas of self and individuality, however, made their presence central. There are other themes that are indispensable for understanding the forces that transformed us from non-conscious to conscious beings and which may also appear for some rather odd: death and with it the beginning of the idea of certainty were two (certitude in religion). To trace the beginnings of an inner life requires some understanding of our relationship with this fundamental idea of certainty. Death and a desire for alternative certainties has proven to be a necessary alpha and omega for humanity and this study.

There are other relevant themes, particularly those growing out of the plastic arts and literature, our cultural and literary history. Artistic themes will appear occasionally, while the exploration of the dynamics of our changing language, especially literacy and our sense of space, will also prove indispensable for understanding such unique modern terms. As we alter our cultural sense of space with the expansion of our language we also construct the discipline of history which gives context for those changes that enlarge both our sense of our world and ourselves.

Scientific history will also be given serious attention in order to expand our understanding of the technical side of time, space and the methodologies for investigation that have played such an important role in our transformation from believing to reasoning beings. Political and economic history will be given some minimal but significant consideration in explaining changes in popular societal and cultural assumptions that contributed to the development of the conscious self.

The relatively new field of social history will also find some application as we examine our social identities altered by cultural changes.
Since so much analysis for intellectual history is deductive and relatively new, the defining of terms will naturally be of paramount concern. But this is not a work meant to reach conclusive definitions. It is rather a matter of suggesting indicators and pointing in a direction for enlarging contextual understanding. The offering here is more in line with a listing of what could be called quasi-essentialistic characterizations applicable to consciousness. Listed corollary terms and appendices suggest further noteworthy and applicable concepts.

As a methodology, this is a contribution to the History of Ideas, a sub-system of historiography. While it may seem odd that an historian of ideas will be discussing language, it is well to remember that, "¼methodologists of the history of ideas usually agree that semantics is relevant for it." As a contributor of Journal of the History of Ideas agreed, "¼the history of ideas to some extent is the history of words." And the father of the history of ideas, Arthur Lovejoy, also pointed out that any study of ideas should also include the study of "¼some parts of the history of language, especially semantics."

Because of serious misunderstandings of our past, and particularly a given period's limited uses and meaning of their language and terms, it will necessitate examination of errors in translations since they too often represent a more modern mentality, one that would be neglectful an understanding of the past within it's own context. The concern, therefore, will be to attempt, where possible, the review of past meanings and understanding rather than adding confusion that might be drawn from an inappropriate modernization of that language. As the above implies, this is a work conducted in a chronological manner although it is appropriately topical as to given themes where indicated.
There has developed more recently, especially among French scholars, a sub-system of intellectual history known as the History of Mentalities. These two fields are not a difference in type but emphasis. The specific study of ideas is best exemplified by the discussion of significant philosophical thinkers and their systems, the two most important reviewed here being René Descartes and John Locke. Because of their significance for consciousness, their contributions will be extensively and systematically studied. Additionally, this is such a lengthy and broad historic period that necessity dictates the use of many scholarly monographs.

Postmodern is a term, which while unpopular with historians, and at best ambiguous, began finding a voice, limited though it may be, in my early re-writings. This will be used cautiously because this is not employed here as occurring after the age of modernity. As expressed here, "post-modern" will be treated as a part or branch of the modern Western mind. As an abstract concept it is much like post-impressionism, suggesting that while the plastic arts continued its pleasures in realism, another aspect began to appear: An art that steps outside the frames of that tradition. The Theater of the Absurd with attempts at post-systematic plots could also be seen as an expression of this post-modern mind. Even physicists entertain such ideas as chaos not being necessarily abnormal. This raises a third point where modern has become enamored if not enslaved to a world of systems, techniques and materialism, while the post-modern could be said more interested in an alternate approach to living as expressed, for example, by surrealism, futurism, modern poetry, jazz and film which reside outside the typical modern establishment schema. Nationalism is being replaced by globalism and a personal identity. The term existential is one major indicator of these changes. Perhaps post-lineal would be more accurate although not an issue here, only an explanation for its occasional usage.

The first section reviews pre-historic, Ancient and Medieval contributions in the creation of the earliest hints of an inner voice for consciousness to eventually find a home. The second section, the Renaissance, Reformation and Scientific Revolution, examines the early interior voice finding an outward expression. The third section deals with the birth of the term consciousness and its place among some early modern thinkers. The final section takes us into the voice of an inner, conscious self and individuality that marks the world for many today.